Calakmul

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structure XVII kai devandahl

structure VI temple with stelae kai davendahl

structure XV kai devandahl

structure XI ball court peter fordham

chi'ik naab restoration INAH

structure VII erick martin del campo

mask tomb 1 structure VII INAH

chi'ik naab bench mural kai davendahl

strucyure II frieze reconstruction erick martin del campo

lidded ceramic inah

structure II stephan merk

CALAKMUL- Campeche, Mexico

DESCRIPTION
Calakmul is a large and important archaeological zone located in the south of the Yucatan Peninsula, and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Its name in Yucatek Maya means "Two Adjacent Mounds", and was the capital of the powerful Snake (Kaanu’l) Kingdom. The original name of the site has been identified as Uxte’tuun. The title Chi'ik Naab has been associated with some of the rulers of the site, possibly in reference to a specific group of structures located there.

Calakmul has some of the highest pyramids in the Maya World, and contains the greatest number of stelae (commemorative carved stone slab markers), found at any site (120). Discovered under a late period temple are some of the most stunning murals ever seen throughout the Maya area. There are at least eight Sacbe (white stone roads) that have been identified in the archeological zone.

Located deep inside the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve about 22 miles/35 kms from the Guatemala border, Calakmul was built atop a small natural plateau surrounded by a savannah. Water was provided by an intricate hydraulic system of canals and reservoirs. It was one of the largest and most influential city-states and had an estimated population of over 50,000, with political control of between 200,000 and one million inhabitants.

The site covers about 7 sq. miles/112 sq. kms and contains over 6,000 structures, though the core area is much smaller and easily visited. It is located off the Chetumal-Campeche Highway 186, outside the town of Conhuas (km 95). From there it is a drive in of about 37 miles/60kms over a newly resurfaced road. There is a station of the Maya Train near the site and a new hotel.

HOURS: 8 A.M-11:30 A.M. (Temporary), 8 AM-5PM regular
ENTRANCE FEE: INAH- $5.00/100 Pesos, Ejidotarios-$3.00/60 Pesos, Biosphere Preserve-$4.00/80 Pesos, Total $11.75/235 Pesos.
GUIDES: Inquire at visitor kiosk, or nearby villages
SERVICES: Bathrooms and pamphlet sales at visitor kiosk
ON-SITE MUSEUM: Yes, opened Sept 2024
ACCOMMODATIONS: Food and lodging at the town of Xupijl, or in either of the state capitals Campeche and Chetumal
GPS: 18d 06' 23" N, 89d 49' 01" W
MISC: Bring water/snacks, best visited Nov-March

HISTORY AND EXPLORATION
Calakmul has a very well-defined history. More than 20 kings have been identified covering a time span of over 400 years. Numerous stelae there and at other sites, as well as other original sources such as hieroglyphic stairways and ceramics, have recorded a time line of events such as royal births, accessions, deaths, marriages, alliances, conquests and defeats. A unique matched pairing of stelae featuring Kings and their Queens appear throughout the site.

Calakmul, with its allies, was in constant conflict with the equally powerful kingdom of Tikal and its allies. These struggles encompassed most of the Classic period (250-850 CE) and dictated the narrative of the Maya Lowlands. Calakmul’s influence, or vengeance, was felt as far away as Copan in Honduras, then an ally of Tikal. Many parallels could be drawn regarding the history of Europe, and the contemporary East/West cold war. It was a life-or-death struggle, with death being the operative word here.

Ceramics and architecture reveal that Calakmul was first settled in the Middle Preclassic (700-350 BCE), and by the Late Preclassic (350 BCE-200 CE) was already an important center featuring large, masonry structures. It was a contemporary of other notable Preclassic cities such as El Mirador, Waka, and Nakbe. The recovery of numerous “Codex Style” ceramics has led some researchers to contend that Calakmul, along with Nakbe and El Mirador, was involved in producing these very distinctive pieces.

The historical data is very sparse before 631 CE. A retrospective series of codex-style ceramics known as “Dynastic Vases” names an individual interpreted as “Skyraiser” a supposed lineage founder. He is also mentioned on an inscription from Hieroglyphic Stairway 3 at the site of El Resbalón, with a partial Long Count date of 7.0.16.14.?, December 378 BCE. This date, interestingly, coincides with the beginning of monumental architecture at Calakmul.

A stela at Calakmul identifies a ruling dynasty which carried the Bat emblem glyph in the 5th century CE. A Bat Dynasty ruler named Chan Yopaat is identified on Stela 114 celebrating the important Baktun Ceremony of 9.0.0.0.0 8 Ahaw 13 Kej, December 9, 435 CE. The text of this stela has not been deciphered entirely but it appears to include a secondary, retrospective date referring to the katun (twenty year) anniversary of a 411 CE accession of an earlier king. There has been no information so far discovered suggesting direct links to the great site of Teotihuacan and the momentous "arrival" of the warlord Siyaj K'ak' to the Peten in 378 CE, though Teotihuacan-style ceramics have been found in the tomb of an early king. Further research into the matter may produce a clearer picture.

Another stela, Stela 43, marks a Katun Ending in 514 CE, but this time identifies an individual with a lineage designation of Chitan Winik, which was also used in the Mirador Basin, and could indicate an external influence.

The Snake Kings
A lineage line of the Kaanu’l/Kaan Dynasty relocated to Calakmul in c.631 CE, following a possible internal power struggle at Dzibanche. Prior to this relocation the Snake Kings had already expanded their influence and power to numerous other sites under the rulership of at least seven known kings. Ut Chanal, aka Sky Witness (ruled c.561-572 CE), and Uneh Chan, aka Scroll Serpent (ruled 579-611 CE), were two of the most notable with Ut Chanal decisively defeating arch rival Tikal in 562 CE, sacrificing its king, Wak Chan K’awiil, and beginning the 130-year hiatus at that site. Uneh Chan went on to defeat Palenque (Lakamha’) on two occasions, 599 and 611 CE, causing that important city/state to suffer a lengthy decline.

The first reference to the Kaanu’l/Snake Dynasty at Calakmul is recorded on Hieroglyphic Stairway 1 at Naranjo in 631 CE which details the defeat of Naranjo by ruler Yuknoom ‘Head’ (ruled 630-636 CE). His arrival at Calakmul initiated the dislocation of the previous Bat dynasty who possibly relocated to Oxpemul 6.7 miles/10.75 km to the northeast.

Yuknoom ‘Head’ begins the era of the ‘Three Kings’ who expanded and ruled for more than 100 years over perhaps the largest Maya empire.

Yuknoom Cheen II, also known as Yuknoom the Great, was Calakmul’s premier king, and one of the most famous and successful kings in all of Maya history. He ruled from 636-686 CE, and controlled a vast empire through marriage and military allegiances of vassal states. Tikal, his bitter enemy, was defeated on more than one occasion with the considerable assistance of powerful allies such as Caracol, then under the rulership of the notable Kan II. It should be noted that some researchers consider Yuknoom ‘Head’ and Yuknoom the Great to be one and the same person.

When not engaged in outright military campaigns he continued the practice of marrying his daughters to lesser kingdoms under his influence to strengthen the ties. On 9.12.6.16.17 11 Kaban 10 Sotz, May 1, 679 CE his daughter ‘arrived’ to marry the ruler of La Corona/Sak Nikte as is recorded on several monuments there. Another of his daughters, ‘Lady Water Lily Hand’, was married to the ruler of El Perú/Waka, K’inich Bahlam, where she became known as a fierce ‘Warrior Queen’. This dynasty wasn’t foolin’ around!

All good things come to an end however, and in 695 CE during an attack against Tikal, the probable son of Yuknoom the Great, Yuknoom Yich’aak K’ahk, aka Jaguar Fire Paw, was defeated by Tikal King Jasaw Chan K’awiil I. His death around this time ushered in his successor, Yuknoom Took’ K’awiil, who ruled c.698-736. He reinvigorated the empire, and is known for erecting the largest number of stelae found so far at the site. His daughter, Ix Tiʼ Kaan, married Yajaw Te' K'inich, the ruler of La Corona/Sak Nikte in 721 CE further cementing the relationship between the two sites. Yuknoom Took’ K’awill’s demise coincides with another attack from Tikal c.735 CE. A lavish tomb, Tomb 1, located within Structure VII is thought to be his.

Calakmul began to lose its importance as a major power, though it continued to hold influence for a time over some sites including Caracol, Waka/El Peru, Dos Pilas, Naranjo and La Corona/Sak Nikte.

It is thought that the last Snake King from Calakmul may have been Wamaw K’awiil, who ruled after c.736 CE, and may have been the son of king Yuknoom Took K’awiil. Though the record is sparse, it appears he initiated, or completed, the participation of Calakmul with Quirigua ruler K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat to oppose the overlordship of Copan, who was then a strong ally of Tikal (What was it with these guys?). He is depicted on a stela there performing a ceremony. Quirigua captured the famous king of Copan, Uaxaclajuun Ub’aah, aka 18 Rabbit, and sacrificed him in 738 CE in a public display of defiance. Quirigua gained its independence from Copan, and Copan itself was forever degraded as a regional power.

The time frame after 736 CE remains a bit murky as the Bat emblem glyph is recorded for the first time on a stela at Oxpemul in 731 CE, and later upon several stelae at Calakmul itself. This may indicate that the Bat Dynasty regained its position and power in some manner, and displaced the Snake Dynasty who presumably relocated to an unidentified location.

The last reference to the Snake King Dynasty was from a list of dynasties inscribed on Stela 10 from Seibal in 849 CE, and naming a ruler, Chan Pet, but not the location from where he ruled.

A final note on the Snake Dynasty. Some researchers have proposed that the Snake Dynasty originally came from El Mirador as a Snake/Kaan glyph has been discovered there dating back to the Preclassic. Other relationships include a sacbe which connected the two sites, as well as the architectural style and the aforementioned “Codex Style” ceramics. However, recent investigations at the huge site of Ichkabal just 10 miles/16 km east from Dzibanche has offered potential evidence that this site was the origin of the dynasty. Future epigraphic discoveries may help fill in the details, and clarify the relationships between the sites.

A late ruler, Bolon K’awiil, is mentioned on several monuments and reigned c.751-c.771. He celebrated a Katun Period Ending on 9.17.0.0.0 13 Ajaw 18 Kumku- January 22, 771 CE. by placing a pair of stelae, Stelae 57 and 58 in front of Structure XIII. He is titled simply as “Holy Lord of Chiik Naab”. No dynastic emblem glyphs are associated with his name.

The last recorded king of Calakmul was Aj Took, who is referenced on Stela 61 in 909 CE, one of the last stelae erected by the Maya with a readable date. The site continued on with a reduced population and as a pilgrimage destination into the Post Classic (1050-1450 CE). Ceramic evidence indicates it was still visited as a pilgrimage destination in the Early Colonial Period.

The site of Calakmul was brought to the attention of scholars by botanist Cyrus Lundell in 1931 with information provided by two local chicle workers; Manuel Orsono and Jesus Garcia. Graffiti etched into the stucco inside Structure III relates to prior visits of unreported visitors in 1926-28. The site was explored, mapped, and reported on by Lundell and Sylvanus Morley in 1932. There followed Karl Ruppert and John Denison (1943), Raul Pavon (1966), Eric von Euw (1975), Peter Schmidt (1981), and the comprehensive Calakmul Project headed by William Folan (1982-1994).

More recent investigations and restorations have been carried out by Carrasco Vargas and Colon Gonzales in 2005, and Rodriguez Campero in 2008 within the Calakmul Archaeological Project (PAC). Excavation, conservation and consolidation of structures continues under INAH.

STRUCTURES
Calakmul consists of several groups radiating out from the Central/Grand Plaza, and oriented to the cardinal points a few degrees east of North. The early architectural style of the structures feature Preclassic Petén influence that extended into the Early Classic. The inner core area, including the Great Acropolis, was heavily modified and/or expanded during the first half of the Late Classic, especially between 600-700 CE, incorporating aspects of the Rio Bec style of architecture.

The Central/Grand Plaza Group contains structures II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, and VIII. The plaza itself measures about 197 feet/60 m x 656 feet/200 m, and exhibits 47 stelae and 5 altars. The plaza, its structures, stelae and altars were once all painted, mostly in red. Traces of yellow, blue/green, white and black have also been detected. This sector of the site experienced uninterrupted occupation from c.400 BCE to c.900 CE, a time frame of over 1,200 years. Structures IV, V, Vi and VIII form a sub plaza within the Central/Grand Plaza.

By far the most impressive structure at Calakmul is its massive pyramid known as Structure II. It is situated on the south side of the Central/Grand Plaza. This structure was built-over and enlarged a number of times over the course of more than ten centuries to reach its final height of around 164 feet/50 meters, one of the highest and most massive structures in the Maya World. Its base measures around 400 feet/130 m square.

Structure II contains several sub-structures dating back to c.250 BCE, some that have been recently excavated and opened to the public. Sub structure II-C-1 features a central stairway flanked by two, large Olmec-style stucco masks. A frieze measuring 65 feet/20 meters in length depicts a mythological scene with the Rain God Chaak floating/swimming between two supernatural birds, framed by a blue sky band and the two-headed cosmic monster. This style of iconography has also been found at the Preclassic sites of Izapa, Abaj Takalik, and Nakbe. It is worth noting that located within the sub-structures two extremely rare rounded arches, without the usual keystone, have been excavated.

Nine royal tombs have been found within the pyramid, some containing rich funerary offerings including jade masks. One of these tombs, Tomb 4, is thought to belong to Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ahk who ruled 685-695 CE. His reconstructed burial is now housed in the Baluarte de San Miguel Museum in Campeche. It is interesting to note that the fabulous jade mask found on his body belonged to his father, Yuknoom Cheen II, as attested to by a glyphic text inscribed on the mask.

An immense central stairway, flanked by four large Early Classic masks, leads up several tiers to Structure II-B. A stela is planted on a small terrace part-way up. Two smaller stairways appear on opposite sides of the central stairway. Structure II-B, houses nine chambers. It once featured a painted roof comb. Two smaller structures face each other across a courtyard, and all three form a triadic complex. Behind this structure, and rising up upon its own platform base, is Structure II-A. This multi-tiered pyramidal structure dates to the Preclassic. Its summit exhibits the foundation remains of a masonry temple. During the Terminal Classic (850-c.1050 CE) the structure housed numerous chambers associated with domestic use such as for sleeping, food preparation, and workshops for the production of finished lithic and shell objects. In front of the pyramid are several stelae dating from the early eighth century.

About 739 feet/225 meters to the southeast of Structure II is a large pyramid, Structure I. It is the second highest pyramid within the site reaching a height of 130 feet/40 meters. This structure faces west across what may have been a large plaza as a couple of stelae are seen along the path between the two pyramids. The platform that supports the pyramid measures about 328 feet/100 meters on each side. At its base are three, very large monolithic altars representing the “Three Hearth Stones” often associated with the constellation Orion, and the birthplace of the gods. It is a perfect representation of the site name “Uxte’tuun”. A steep, broad stairway measuring 59 feet/18 meters in width, and once flanked by large stucco masks, leads to a small temple at the top. Numerous whistle figurines were located within the structure, as well as, a royal tomb containing a mosaic jade mask.

Located on the west side of the Central/Grand Plaza is Structure VI; Structure VII on the north; Structure IV on the east; Structure III in the southeast corner; and Structure V to the south in front of Structure II.

Structure V features a single temple chamber, and is set on a low platform base. Located around the structure are at least ten stelae and one altar attesting to the importance of this small structure.

Structure III, also known as Lundell’s Palace, is located in the southeast corner of the Central Plaza. It is considered an elite residence containing 12 interior chambers entered through three doorways. The structure is set on a platform base measuring about 105 feet/32 m x 118 feet/36 m, consisting of five levels. It is accessed by a broad, central stairway that extends up about 16.5 feet/5 m, and faces west towards the Central Plaza. The west façade once displayed stucco masks. Its architectural style suggests a date of 370-400 CE. Three roof combs graced the structure in a triadic fashion, and its western façade once featured stucco masks. Excavations have uncovered a rich assortment of grave goods including 3 jade masks from an important burial of an Early Classic ruler. Numerous figurine whistles were discovered on the stairs and within some of the rooms.

Structures IV and VI are thought to have had an astronomical function termed an E Complex, and are among the oldest buildings at the site. This pairing of two structures was quite prevalent during the Preclassic, and was used to track the sunrise on the solstices, some equinox events, and for other astronomical/ceremonial purposes. On the vernal equinox of March 21, 1989 observations verified that the sun rose behind Structure 4b as seen from Structure VI.

Structure IV is an elongated platform base of about 492 feet/150 meters. It houses a central temple structure of two stories, and two smaller temple structures on its far ends. These two smaller structures align with the winter and summer solstices as viewed from Structure VI. Several stelae and their altars are set in front of the structure. The central structure was found to hold 6 burials. One of the burials, Tomb 2, contained a black mosaic mask and several blackware ceramics dating to the Early Classic. A lintel within the structure displays a ruler as the resurrected maize god much like that seen on the sarcophagus lid of the great K’inich Janaahb’ Pakal of Palenque.

Structure VI is of a temple-platform design and rises up on three tiers. Stairways are located on its east and west sides. A long, single chamber structure is located on its summit. Five entryways face to the east across a terrace. Two stelae frame the central doorway which reference a royal couple, and were erected in 702 CE. The west side of the structure exhibits a single entryway that looks across a larger patio, and on down to the Jaguar Plaza. This structure is the companion to Structure IV forming an E Complex. A total of six stelae and one altar are associated with this structure.

Structure VII is a large temple/pyramid complex originally constructed in the Peten style that rises to a height of 82 feet/25 meters, making it the third highest structure at the site. Its base measures about 131 feet/40 m x 155 feet/47 m. It has a broad stairway leading up to a triadic arrangement on its summit.

The central structure is a three chambered temple crowned with a roof comb that rises up on a small platform base. Within was found an eighth century tomb, Tomb 1, of one of Calakmul’s kings, most likely Yuknoom Took K'awiil, containing a fabulous mosaic jade mask. Other jade and shell ornaments, obsidian blades, and ceramic objects were discovered as well. A patolli game plan was found etched into the surface of one of the chambers. Fragments of Chen-Mul Mayapán-style incense burners that date to the Late Postclassic period were also recovered. Five stelae and one altar are situated in front of the structure.

To the side of Structure VII is the small Structure VIII. This single chamber structure is set on a low, two-tiered platform. A single stela and altar are located in front of it.

North of the Central Plaza is a complex known as the Chi'ik Naab Complex, “Place of the Water Lilly”. The complex measures about 495 feet/150 meters square and may have housed a market place. It contains around 68 structures and dates to 450-500 CE. There are a number of eroded stelae located within the complex.

This complex is famous for its stunning murals recently discovered within the principal structure of the complex. The structure, Structure 1, consists of 5 sub-structures reflecting a building period covering hundreds of years. During excavations brilliant murals were discovered on the stuccoed outer walls of Sub-structure 4c, a small three-tiered pyramid. These murals are unique in the Maya World as they depict not royalty or warfare, but nobles and commoners engaged in social activities as might be seen in a marketplace. A number of the scenes depict a Maya noble woman who is identified as Lady Nine Stone. Investigations have revealed at least three layers of painted murals.

An associated long, bench-walkway construction measuring about 5 feet/1.5 m in height also retains elaborate decorations of birds and other aquatic features, such as turtles, fish, and small waves. Interspaced among these features are cartouche decorations containing the Chi'ik Naab glyph. This most likely indicates the identification of the complex, and the secondary name for the site itself.

To the west of Structure VI, and across the large Jaguar Plaza, is the West Group, or Great Acropolis. This massive complex, with a base of about 1,148 feet/350 m x 1,574 feet/480 m, houses multiple structures including a ball court, pyramids, temples, and palaces.

The acropolis includes 20 plazas, courtyards, and patios, making it one of the largest palace complexes in the Maya World. It is divided into two main sectors. The east sector, consisting of the North Court, Southeast Court and the Plaza of the Prisoners, was of a semi-public area. The larger west sector/Acropolis Group was a restricted elite residential complex.

Structure XIII, located on the north side of the North Court, is a four-tiered pyramid platform. The platform base has a length of about 141 feet/43 meters. A central stairway leads up to a two-story structure atop the pyramid summit. A number of stelae are located here and place the date of the visible structure to the 8th century. A sub-structure dates back to the Preclassic. Four stelae and one altar are associated with this structure.

Structure XIV was the main entryway into the North Court from the Jaguar Plaza, and is situated on the east side of the North Court. A broad central stairway leads up from the Jaguar Plaza to a superstructure having three entryways that opened into two galleries.

A ball court, Structure XI, is located on the west side of the North Court, and separates the North Court from the Plaza of the Prisoners. The ball court is of standard design with open end zones. It is set on a North/South axis. It is most unusual for a site as large as Calakmul to feature only one ballcourt.

A fine carving of seven kneeling prisoners, located in the Plaza of the Prisoners, has been discovered on a natural limestone outcrop. It has since been reburied to preserve it. The plaza is found on the western side of the ball court.

Structure XV is located on the east side of the Southeast Court. The structure contains three tombs of high-ranking personages. One of them has been identified as the wife of Yuknoom Ch’een II who ruled from 636-698 CE. She was the mother of the previously mentioned Yuknoom Yich’aak K’ahk. Her body was wrapped in chicle strips. Her tomb contained a rich assortment of funerary goods, including a large pectoral made of jade and shell. Another tomb, Tomb 3, contained a finely crafted jade mask. Five stelae are set up in front of the structure which is situated on the east side of the Southeast Court.

Structure X is an elongated platform, that extends out from Structure XV. It divides the North Court from the Southeast Court.

Structure XVI is a massive, raised platform of approximately 263 feet/80 m x 328 feet/100m. It is situated on the west side of the Southeast Court, and is a part of the west sector/Acropolis Group of the acropolis. The platform base rises up about 29.5 feet/9 m from the Southeast Court across from Structure XV. Five stelae are located here. The summit of the platform base has a series of structures that ring an interior courtyard forming a quadrangle. The north side of the structure faces onto the Plaza of the Prisoners, and features two stelae. This structure, like many of the structures within the acropolis, is in an unrestored state.

Structure XVII is a pyramidal structure with a length of 164 feet/50 m and features a broad central stairway that leads up to a two-chamber superstructure. A single stela located here dates to 790 CE. This structure anchors the south side of the Southeast Court.

Structure XIX is an elongated platform base with a double row of galleries running its width. It functioned as the north entrance to the acropolis, and is located within the west sector/Acropolis Group.

Structure XX is set on a low platform base that measures about 118 feet/36 m x 262.5 feet/80 meters, with a current total height of about 26 feet/8 m. The main structure is flanked by two smaller gallery-type structures. One of these smaller structures features two stories. An Early Classic tomb was located within a sub-structure containing an offering of nine ceramic vessels. It is located within the west sector/Acropolis Group on the west side of the Plaza of the Prisoners. It served as an entryway into the more restricted western sector/Acropolis Group. Many of the other structures associated with this sector remain to be excavated and studied.

A wall has been excavated on the north side of the Great Acropolis and functioned as a controlled access to the site. It may also have had acted in a defensive role. A remaining section of the wall measures about 20 feet/6 m in height, and about 6.5 feet/2 m in width. It has been conjectured that the wall, at different heights, runs .6 mile/1 km to the east, though more research is needed.

To the east of the Central/Grand Plaza is the Small Acropolis, an elite residential compound. It is made up of numerous courtyards, patios, and residential structures. The area measures about 820 feet/250 meters on its east-west axis and 984 feet/300 meters on a north-south axis. To the north of this complex is a large residential group called Chan Chi'ich.

The Northeast Group is a large complex including fifteen stelae. This group is mostly in an unexcavated state. An excavated, single platform housing three structures and four stelae have been restored, and is possible to identify when first entering the site. To the north of this complex is the small, partially excavated Taman residential group also seen when first entering the site.

The Utsiaal Caan and the House of the 6 Ajaw, both sectors of the K’iinich Pak Group, form a residential grouping to the northwest of the Great Acropolis. There are other elite residential areas that surround the central core area.

Several sacbeob (raised white stone roads) have been located at Calakmul. The longest is Sacbe 7, and stretches 27 miles/34 km southwest to El Mirador indicating a close relationship with this site.

Calakmul is an impressive site which will take many years to fully excavate. Without a doubt, many new discoveries await the archaeologist’s pick and trowel.
updated march 2025